• Chandogya Upanishad Pdf
• Taittiriya Upanishad Pdf Bengali
• Shikshavalli Pdf Sanskrit Sssbpt
• Krishna Yajurveda Pdf
• Taittiriya Upanishad Chanting Pdf
• Taittiriya Upanishad Shikshavalli Pdf

The Taittiriya Upanishad was first translated in Non Indian languages Jacqueline Hirst, in her analysis of Adi Shankara's works, states that Taittiriya Upanishad Bhasya provides one of his key exegesis. Shankara presents Knowledge and Truth as different, non-superimposable but interrelated. For the time being, this is enough for you as far as the Taittiriya Upanishad is concerned. The Mandukya Upanishad goes deeper into this teaching of the Taittiriya Upanishad by an analysis of the states of consciousness that seem to be involved in the categorisation of the sheaths. Commentaries on the Taittiriya-Upaṇiṣad which is so characteristic of their commentaries on the Brihadaraṇyaka, Sayana (or Vidyāraṇya, as some would have it), that prolific scholiast on the Vedic literature, has written a commentary on the Taittiriya-Upaṇiṣad which is at once thorough and lucid. The Mandukya, Taittiriya and Chandogya Upanishads 6.1 The Mandukya Upanishad The Upanishad is named after the sage Mandukya who taught about the four states of consciousness, namely, waking, dreaming, deep sleep and fourth, known as turiya, which is the highest. The three states and the fourth are explained through the mystic syllable Om. Sources and books. We have made constant reference to the Taittiriya Sakhaa compiled and commented by Shri. Sayanacharya of 13th Century and Shri Bhatta Bhaskaracharya (period unknown). Their manuscript compilations were later converted into books by great Scholars. One of such sets of “Taittiriya” was.

The Taittirīya Upanishad (Devanagari: तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद्) is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters (adhyāya) of the Yajurveda. It is a mukhya (primary, principal) Upanishad, and likely composed about 6th century BC .^[1]

The Taittirīya Upanishad is associated with the Taittirīya school of the Yajurveda, attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri (literally, 'Partridge').^[2] It lists as number 7 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.

The Taittirīya Upanishad is the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Taittirīya Āraṇyaka, which are also called, respectively, the Śikṣāvallī, the Ānandavallī and the Bhṛguvallī.^[3] This Upanishad is classified as part of the 'black' Yajurveda, with the term 'black' implying 'the un-arranged, motley collection' of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the 'white' (well arranged) Yajurveda where Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Isha Upanishad are embedded.^[3][4]

The Upanishad includes verses that are partly prayers and benedictions, partly instruction on phonetics and praxis, partly advice on ethics and morals given to graduating students from ancient Vedic gurukula-s (schools), partly a treatise on allegory, and partly philosophical instruction.^[3]

• 4Content
  • 4.1Shiksha Valli
  • 4.2Ananda Valli

Etymology[edit]

Taittiriya is a Sanskrit word that means 'from Tittiri'. The root of this name has been interpreted in two ways: 'from Vedic sage Tittiri', who was the student of Yāska; or alternatively, it being a collection of verses from mythical students who became 'partridges' (birds) in order to gain knowledge.^[2] The later root of the title comes from the nature of Taittriya Upanishad which, like the rest of 'dark or black Yajur Veda', is a motley, confusing collection of unrelated but individually meaningful verses.^[2]

Each chapter of the Taittiriya Upanishad is called a Valli (वल्ली), which literally means a medicinal vine-like climbing plant that grows independently yet is attached to a main tree. Paul Deussen states that this symbolic terminology is apt and likely reflects the root and nature of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which too is largely independent of the liturgical Yajur Veda, and is attached to the main text.^[3]

Chronology[edit]

The chronology of Taittiriya Upanishad, along with other Vedic era literature, is unclear.^[5] All opinions rest on scanty evidence, assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.^[5][6]

Stephen Phillips^[5] suggests that Taittiriya Upanishad was likely one of the early Upanishads, composed in the 1st half of 1st millennium BCE, after Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, and Isha, but before Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Kena, Katha, Manduka, Prasna, Svetasvatara and Maitri Upanishads, as well as before the earliest Buddhist Pali and Jaina canons.^[5]

Ranade^[7] shares the view of Phillips in chronologically sequencing Taittiriya Upanishad with respect to other Upanishads. Paul Deussen^[8] and Winternitz,^[9] hold a similar view as that of Phillips, but place Taittiriya before Isha Upanishad, but after Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad.

According to a 1998 review by Patrick Olivelle, the Taittiriya Upanishad was composed in a pre-Buddhist period, possibly 6th to 5th century BCE.^[10][11]

Structure[edit]

The Taittiriya Upanishad has three chapters: the Siksha Valli, the Ananda Valli and the Bhrigu Valli. The first chapter Siksha Valli includes twelve Anuvaka (lessons). The second chapter Ananda Valli, sometimes called Brahmananda Valli includes nine verses.^[12] The third chapter Bhrigu Valli consists of ten verses.^[13]

Some ancient and medieval Hindu scholars have classified the Taittiriya Upanishad differently, based on its structure. For example, Sâyana in his Bhasya (review and commentary) calls the Shiksha Valli (seventh chapter of the Aranyaka) as Sâmhitî-upanishad, and he prefers to treat the Ananda Valli and Bhrigu Vallu (eighth and ninth Prapâthakas) as a separate Upanishad and calls it the Vāruny Upanishad.^[12]

The Upanishad is one of the earliest known texts where index was included at the end of each section, along with main text, as a structural layout of the book. At the end of each Vallĩ in Taittiriya Upanishad manuscripts, there is an index of the Anuvakas which it contains. The index includes the initial words and final words of each Anuvaka, as well as the number of sections in that Anuvaka.^[12] For example, the first and second Anuvakas of Shiksha Valli state in their indices that there are five sections each in them, the fourth Anuvaka asserts there are three sections and one paragraph in it, while the twelfth Anuvaka states it has one section and five paragraphs.^[12] The Ananda Valli, according to the embedded index, state each chapter to be much larger than currently surviving texts. For example, the 1st Anuvaka lists pratika words in its index as brahmavid, idam, ayam, and states the number of sections to be twenty one. The 2nd Anuvaka asserts it has twenty six sections, the 3rd claims twenty two, the 4th has eighteen, the 5th has twenty two, the 6th Anuvaka asserts in its index that it has twenty eight sections, 7th claims sixteen, 8th states it includes fifty one sections, while the 9th asserts it has eleven. Similarly, the third Valli lists the pratika and anukramani in the index for each of the ten Anuvakas.^[12]

Content[edit]

Shiksha Valli[edit]

The Siksha Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad derives its name from Shiksha (Sanskrit: शिक्षा), which literally means 'instruction, education'.^[14] The various lessons of this first chapter are related to education of students in ancient Vedic era of India, their initiation into a school and their responsibilities after graduation.^[15] It mentions lifelong 'pursuit of knowledge', includes hints of 'Self-knowledge', but is largely independent of the second and third chapter of the Upanishad which discuss Atman and Self-knowledge. Paul Deussen states that the Shiksha Valli was likely the earliest chapter composed of this Upanishad, and the text grew over time with additional chapters.^[16]

The Siksha Valli includes promises by students entering the Vedic school, an outline of basic course content, the nature of advanced courses and creative work from human relationships, ethical and social responsibilities of the teacher and the students, the role of breathing and proper pronunciation of Vedic literature, the duties and ethical precepts that the graduate must live up to post-graduation.^[16][17]

A student's promise - First Anuvāka[edit]

The first anuvaka (lesson) of Taittiriya Upanishad starts with benedictions, wherein states Adi Shankara, major Vedic deities are proclaimed to be manifestations of Brahman (Cosmic Soul, the constant Universal Principle, Unchanging Reality).^[12][18] Along with the benedictions, the first anuvaka includes a prayer and promise that a student in Vedic age of India was supposed to recite. Along with benedictions to Vedic deities, the recitation stated,^[19]

The right will I will speak,
and I will speak the true,
May That (Brahman) protect me; may That protect the teacher.
Om! Peace! Peace! Peace!

Adi Shankara comments that the 'Peace' phrase is repeated thrice, because there are three potential obstacles to the gain of Self-knowledge by a student: one's own behavior, other people's behavior, and the devas; these sources are exhorted to peace.^[18]

Phonetics and the theory of connecting links - Second and Third Anuvāka[edit]

The second anuvaka highlights phonetics as an element of the Vedic instruction. The verse asserts that the student must master the principles of sound as it is created and as perceived, in terms of the structure of linguistics, vowels, consonants, balancing, accentuation (stress, meter), speaking correctly, and the connection of sounds in a word from articulatory and auditory perspectives.^[20] Taittirĩya Upanishad's emphasizes, in its later anuvakas, svādhyāya, a practice that served as the principal tool for the oral preservation of the Vedas in their original form for over two millennia. Svādhyāya as a part of student's instruction, involved understanding the linguistic principles coupled with recitation practice of Indian scriptures, which enabled the mastering of entire chapters and books with accurate pronunciation.^[21] The ancient Indian studies of linguistics and recitation tradition, as mentioned in the second anuvaka of Taittiriya Upanishad, helped transmit and preserve the extensive Vedic literature from 2nd millennium BCE onwards, long before the methods of mass printing and book preservation were developed. Michael Witzel explains it as follows,^[21]

The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording.. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present.^[21]

The third anuvaka of Shiksha Valli asserts that everything in the universe is connected. In its theory of 'connecting links', it states that letters are joined to form words and words are joined to express ideas, just like earth and heavens are forms causally joined by space through the medium of Vayu (air), and just like the fire and the sun are forms causally connected through lightning with the medium of clouds. It asserts that it is knowledge that connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, while the child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation.^[20][22] Speech (expression) is the joining link between upper and lower jaw, and it is speech which connects people.^[23]

A teacher's prayer - Fourth Anuvāka[edit]

The fourth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a prayer of the teacher,^[24]

May the pupils inquire after me,
May the pupils come to me!
May my pupils venture forth on the way of research, inquiry!
May my pupils practice self-restraint!
May my pupils find peace and tranquility of mind!
(..)
As waters rush down the valleys, as the months run into years, O Creator!, hurry towards me the students from all sides!

The structure of the fourth anuvaka is unusual because it starts as a metered verse but slowly metamorphoses into a rhythmic Sanskrit prose. Additionally, the construction of the verse has creative elements that permits multiple translations.^[24] The fourth anuvaka is also structured as a liturgical text, with many parts rhythmically ending in Svāhā, a term used when oblations are offered during yajna rituals.^[25]

A theory of Oneness and holy exclamations - Fifth and Sixth Anuvāka[edit]

The fifth anuvaka declares that 'Bhūr! Bhuvaḥ! Svar!' are three holy exclamations, then adds that Bhur is the breathing out, Bhuvah is the breathing in, while Svar is the intermediate step between those two. It also states that 'Brahman is Atman (Self), and all deities and divinities are its limbs', that 'Self-knowledge is the Eternal Principle', and the human beings who have this Oneness and Self-knowledge are served by the gods.^[26]

The second part of the sixth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli asserts that the 'Atman (Soul, Self) exists' and when an individual Self attains certain characteristics, it becomes one with Brahman (Cosmic Soul, Eternal Reality). These characteristics are listed as follows in verse 1.6.2,^[27]

(When) the Soul attains self-sovereignty, becomes lord of the mind,
it becomes lord of speech, the lord of the eyes, the lord of the ears, the lord of knowledge;
then it becomes Brahman;
its body is the boundless space, its essential nature is the reality, truth;
its playground the life-force, its consciousness a state of bliss,
it exists in serenity, in calmness, in peace,
a state of immortality.

The sixth anuvaka ends with exhortation to meditate on this Oneness principle, during Pracina yogya (प्राचीन योग्य, ancient yoga),^[30] making it one of the earliest mentions of the practice of meditative Yoga as existent in ancient India.^[31]

Parallelism in knowledge and what is Om - Seventh and Eighth Anuvāka[edit]

The seventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is an unconnected lesson asserting that 'everything in this whole world is fivefold' - sensory organs, human anatomy (skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow), breathing, energy (fire, wind, sun, moon, stars), space (earth, aerial space, heavens, poles, intermediate poles).^[32] This section does not contextually fit with the sixth or eighth lesson. It is the concluding words of the seventh anuvaka that makes it relevant to the Taittiriya Upanishad, by asserting the idea of fractal nature of existence where the same hidden principles of nature and reality are present in macro and micro forms, there is parallelism in all knowledge. Paul Deussen states that these concluding words of the seventh lesson of Shiksha Valli assert, 'there is parallelism between man and the world, microcosm and macrocosm, and he who understands this idea of parallelism becomes there through the macrocosm itself'.^[27]

What is ॐ?

The eighth anuvaka, similarly, is another seemingly unconnected lesson. It includes an exposition of the syllable word Om (ॐ, sometimes spelled Aum), stating that this word is inner part of the word Brahman, it signifies the Brahman, it is this whole world states the eight lesson in the first section of the Taittiriya Upanishad. The verse asserts that this syllable word is used often and for diverse purposes, to remind and celebrate that Brahman. It lists the diverse uses of Om in ancient India, at invocations, at Agnidhra, in songs of the Samans, in prayers, in Sastras, during sacrifices, during rituals, during meditation, and during recitation of the Vedas.^[32][33]

Ethical duties of human beings - Ninth Anuvāka[edit]

The ninth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a rhythmic recitation of ethical duties of all human beings, where svādhyāya is the 'perusal of oneself' (study yourself), and the pravacana (प्रवचन, exposition and discussion of Vedas)^[34] is emphasized.^[35][36]

Chandogya Upanishad Pdf

ऋतं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । सत्यं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । तपश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । दमश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । शमश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अग्नयश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अग्निहोत्रं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अतिथयश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । मानुषं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजा च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजनश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजातिश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । सत्यमिति सत्यवचा राथीतरः । तप इति तपोनित्यः पौरुशिष्टिः । स्वाध्यायप्रवचने एवेति नाको मौद्गल्यः । तद्धि तपस्तद्धि तपः ॥^[37]
Justice with svādhyāya and pravacana (must be practiced),
Truth with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Tapas with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Damah with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Tranquility and forgiveness with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Fire rituals with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Oblations during fire rituals with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Hospitality to one's guest to the best of one's ability with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Kind affability with all human beings with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Procreation with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Sexual intercourse with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Raising children to the best of one's ability with svādhyāya and pravacana,
Truthfulness opines (sage) Satyavacā Rāthītara,
Tapas opines (sage) Taponitya Pauruśiṣṭi,
Svādhyāya and pravacana opines (sage) Naka Maudgalya
– because that is tapas, that is tapas.

Download Setup File Windows 10 Loader v2.2.2 by DAZ Free Download – Free Activator 2019Windows Loader v2.2.2 by Daz is highly useful Microsoft Windows activation tool to activate Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8/8.1 and Windows 10. It is really fabulous activator launched by Microsoft. Well, it is the recently released operating system by Microsoft.Windows 10 Loader is the famous and popular operating system. Download windows loader v2 2.2 32 bits.

Tenth Anuvāka[edit]

The tenth anuvaka is obscure, unrelated lesson, likely a corrupted or incomplete surviving version of the original, according to Paul Deussen. It is rhythmic with Mahabrihati Yavamadhya meter, a mathematical '8+8+12+8+8' structure.^[38]

Max Muller translates it as an affirmation of one's Self as a capable, empowered blissful being.^[39] The tenth anuvaka asserts, 'I am he who shakes the tree. I am glorious like the top of a mountain. I, whose pure light (of knowledge) has risen, am that which is truly immortal, as it resides in the sun. I (Soul, Self) am the treasure, wise, immortal, imperishable. This is the teaching of the Veda, by sage Trisanku.'^[39] Shankara states^[40] that the tree is a metaphor for the empirical world, which is shaken by knowledge and realization of Atman-Brahman (Self, eternal reality and hidden invisible principles).

Convocation address to graduating students, living ethically - Eleventh Anuvāka[edit]

The eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a list of golden rules which the Vedic era teacher imparted to the graduating students as the ethical way of life.^[41][42] The verses ask the graduate to take care of themselves and pursue Dharma, Artha and Kama to the best of their abilities. Parts of the verses in section 1.11.1, for example, state^[41]

Never err from Truth,
Never err from Dharma,
Never neglect your well-being,
Never neglect your health,
Never neglect your prosperity,
Never neglect Svādhyāya (study of oneself) and Pravacana (exposition of Vedas).

The eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli list behavioral guidelines for the graduating students from a gurukul,^[43]

मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव ।
आचार्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव ।
यान्यनवद्यानि कर्माणि तानि सेवितव्यानि । नो इतराणि ।
यान्यस्माकँ सुचरितानि तानि त्वयोपास्यानि । नो इतराणि ॥ २ ॥
Be one to whom a mother is as god, be one to whom a father is as god,
Be one to whom an Acharya (spiritual guide, scholars you learn from) is as god, be one to whom a guest is as god.^[43]
Let your actions be uncensurable, none else.
Those acts that you consider good when done to you, do those to others, none else.

The third section of the eleventh anuvaka lists charity and giving, with faith, sympathy, modesty and cheerfulness, as ethical precept for the graduating students.^[42]

Scholars have debated whether the guidelines to morality in this Taittiriya Upanishad anuvaka are consistent with the 'Know yourself' spirit of the Upanishads. Adi Shankara states that they are, because there is a difference between theory and practice, learning the need for Self-knowledge and the ethics that results from such Self-knowledge is not same as living practice of the same. Ethical living accelerates Self-knowledge in the graduate.^[41][42]

Graduating student's acknowledgment - Twelfth Anuvāka[edit]

The last anuvaka (lesson) of Taittiriya Upanishad, just like the first anuvaka, starts with benedictions, wherein Vedic deities are once again proclaimed to be manifestations of Brahman (Cosmic Soul, Unchanging Reality).^[12][44] Along with the benedictions, the last anuvaka includes an acknowledgment that mirrors the promise in first anuvaka,^[45]

I have spoken what is right,
I have spoken what is true,
It has gratified me, it has gratified the teacher!
It has satisfied me, it satisfied the teacher!
Om! Peace! Peace! Peace!

Ananda Valli[edit]

ॐ
सह नाववतु ।
सह नौ भुनक्तु । सह वीर्यं करवावहै ।
तेजस्वि नावधीतमस्तु मा विद्विषावहै ।
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥
Om!
May it (Brahman) protect us both (teacher and student)!
May we both enjoy knowledge! May we learn together!
May our study be brilliant! May we never quarrel!
Om! Peace! peace! peace!

—Taittiriya Upanishad, Anandavalli Invocation^[46]

The second chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad, namely Ananda Valli and sometimes called Brahmananda Valli, focuses like other ancient Upanishads on the theme of Atman (Self, Soul). It asserts that 'Atman exists', it is Brahman, and realizing it is the highest, empowering, liberating knowledge.^[47] The Ananda Valli asserts that knowing one's Self is the path to freedom from all concerns, fears and to a positive state of blissful living.^[47]

The Ananda Valli is remarkable for its Kosha (Sanskrit: कोष) theory (or Layered Maya theory), expressing that man reaches his highest potential and understands the deepest knowledge by a process of learning the right and unlearning the wrong. Real deeper knowledge is hidden in layers of superficial knowledge, but superficial knowledge is easier and simplistic. The Ananda Valli classifies these as concentric layers (sheaths) of knowledge-seeking.^[48] The outermost layer it calls Annamaya which envelops and hides Pranamaya, which in turn envelops Manomaya, inside which is Vijnanamaya, and finally the Anandamaya which the Upanishad states is the innermost, deepest layer.^[47][49][50]

The Ananda Valli asserts that Self-knowledge is 'not' attainable by cultic worship of God or gods motivated by egoistic cravings and desires (Manomaya).^[47]Vijnanamaya or one with segregated knowledge experiences the deeper state of existence but it too is insufficient. The complete, unified and blissful state of Self-knowledge is, states Ananda Valli, that where one becomes one with all reality, there is no separation between object and subject, I and we, Atman and Brahman. Realization of Atman is a deep state of absorption, oneness, communion.^[47]

The Ananda valli is one of the earliest known theories in history on the nature of man and knowledge, and resembles but pre-dates the Hellenistic Hermetic and Neoplatonic theories recorded in different forms about a millennium later, such as those expressed in the Corpus Hermetica.^[50][51]

Annamaya - First and Second Anuvāka[edit]

The first anuvaka commences by stating the premise and a summary of the entire Ananda Valli.^[47]

ब्रह्मविदाप्नोति परम् । तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता । सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म ।

One who knows Brahman, reaches the highest.Satya (reality, truth) is Brahman,Jnana (knowledge) is Brahman,

Ananta (infinite) is Brahman.

Paul Deussen notes that the word Ananta in verse 1 may be vulgate, and a related term Ananda, similarly pronounced, is more consistent with the teachings of other Upanishads of Hinduism, particularly one of its central premise of Atman being sat-chit-ananda. In Deussen's review and translation, instead of 'Brahman is infinite', an alternate expression would read 'Brahman is bliss'.^[47]

The second anuvaka of Ananda Valli then proceeds to explain the first layer of man's nature and knowledge-seeking to be about 'material man and material nature', with the metaphor of food.^[53] The Taittiriya Upanishad asserts that both 'material man and material nature' are caused by Brahman, are manifestations of Brahman, are Brahman, but only the outermost shell or sheath of existence.^[53] The verse offers relational connection between natural elements, asserting that everything is food to something else in universe at the empirical level of existence, either at a given time, or over time.^[53] All creatures are born out of this 'food provided by nature and food provided by life with time'. All creatures grow due to food, and thus are interdependent. All creatures, upon their death, become food in this food-chain, states Ananda Valli's second verse. Learning, knowing and understanding this 'food chain' material nature of existence and the interdependence is the first essential, yet outermost incomplete knowledge.^[53][54]

Pranamaya - Third Anuvāka[edit]

The second inner level of nature and knowledge-seeking is about life-force, asserts Ananda Valli's third anuvaka.^[53] This life-force is identified by and dependent on breathing. Gods breathe, human beings breathe, animals breathe, as do all beings that exist. Life-force is more than material universe, it includes animating processes inside the being, particularly breathing, and this layer of nature and knowledge is Pranamaya kosha.^[53]

Manomaya - Fourth Anuvāka[edit]

The next inner, deeper layer of nature and knowledge-seeking relates to Manas (mind, thought, will, wish), or Manomaya kosha.^[53]Manas, asserts the fourth anuvaka of Ananda Valli, exists only in individual forms of beings. It is characterized by the power to will, the ability to wish, and the striving for prosperity through actions on the empirical nature, knowledge and beings.^[55] The verse of fourth anuvaka add that this knowledge is essential yet incomplete, that it the knowledge of Brahman that truly liberates, and one who knows Atman-Brahman 'dreads nothing, now and never' and 'lives contently, in bliss'.^[55]

Vijñãnamaya - Fifth Anuvāka[edit]

Taittiriya Upanishad Pdf Bengali

The fifth anuvaka of Ananda Valli states that the 'manomaya kosha' (thought, will, wish) envelops a deeper more profound layer of existence, which is the 'vijnana-maya kosha' (knowledge, ethics, reason). This is the realm of knowledge observed in all human beings. The vijnana-maya is characterized by faith, justice, truth, yoga and mahas (power to perceive and reason). The individual who is aware of vijnana-maya, asserts the verses of Ananda Valli, offers knowledge as the work to others.^[56]

Anandamaya - Sixth, Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Anuvāka[edit]

The sixth, seventh and eighth anuvaka of Ananda Valli states that the 'vijnanamaya kosha' (knowledge, ethics, reason) envelops the deepest, hidden layer of existence, which is the 'ananda-maya kosha' (bliss, tranquility, contentness). This is the inner most is the realm of Atman-Brahman (Soul, Self, spirituality).^[57] The ananda-maya is characterized by love, joy, cheerfulness, bliss and Brahman. The individuals who are aware of ananda-maya, assert the sixth to eighth verses of Ananda Valli, are those who simultaneously realize the empirical and the spiritual, the conscious and unconscious, the changing and the eternal, the time and the timeless.^[57]

These last anuvakas of the second Valli of Tattiriya Upanishad assert that he who has Self-knowledge is well constituted, he realizes the essence, he is full of bliss. He exists in peace within and without, his is a state of calm joy irrespective of circumstances, he is One with everything and everyone. He fears nothing, he fears no one, he lives his true nature, he is free from pride, he is free from guilt, he is beyond good and evil, he is free from craving desires and thus all the universe is in him and is his.^[57] His blissful being is Atman-Brahman, and Atman-Brahman is the bliss that is he.

Bhṛgu Vallī[edit]

The third Valli of Tattiriya Upanishad repeats the ideas of Ananda Valli, through a legend about sage Bhrigu. The chapter is also similar in its themes and focus to those found in chapter 3 of Kausitaki Upanishad and chapter 8 of Chandogya Upanishad.^[58] The Bhrigu Valli's theme is the exposition of the concept of Atman-Brahman (self, soul) and what it means to be a self-realized, free, liberated human being.^[59]

The first six anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli are called Bhargavi Varuni Vidya, which means 'the knowledge Bhrigu got from (his father) Varuni'. It is in these anuvakas that sage Varuni advises Bhrigu with one of the oft-cited definition of Brahman, as 'that from which beings originate, through which they live, and in which they re-enter after death, explore that because that is Brahman'.^[58] This thematic, all encompassing, eternal nature of reality and existence develops as the basis for Bhrigu's emphasis on introspection and inwardization, to help peel off the outer husks of knowledge, in order to reach and realize the innermost kernel of spiritual Self-knowledge.^[58]

The last four of the ten anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli build on this foundation, but once again like Ananda Valli, use the metaphor of 'food' as in Ananda Valli.^[58] As with Ananda Valli, in Bhrigu Valli, everything and everyone is asserted to be connected and deeply inter-related to everything and everyone else, by being food (of energy, of material, of knowledge). 'Food is founded on food', asserts verse 3.9 of Taittiriya Upanishad, which then illustrates the idea with the specific example 'earth is founded on (food for) space, and space is founded on (food for) earth'.^[58]

Bliss is Brahman;
from bliss beings are born;
by bliss, when born, they live;
into bliss they enter at their death.

After discussing the nature of Brahman, the Bhrigu Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad recommends the following maxims and vows:^[12][58][60]

• 'Never scorn food', which metaphorically means 'never scorn anything or anyone'.
• 'Increase food', which metaphorically means 'increase prosperity of everyone and everything'.
• 'Refuse no guest to your house, and share food with everyone including strangers', which metaphorically means 'compassionately help everyone, sharing plentiful prosperity and knowledge'.

The Taittiriya Upanishad closes with the following declaration,^[58][59]

O wonderful! O wonderful! O wonderful!
I am food (object)! I am food! I am food!
I am the eater of food (subject)! I am the eater of food! I am the eater of food!
I am the poet (who joins the two together)! I am the poet! I am the poet!
The first-born of the Ṛta^[61] I am,
Prior to Gods I am,
In the source point of the eternal I am,
I am the one who distributes myself, refreshing myself therewith,
Because I am food (for others), and I eat the eater of food,
I am elevated over this whole world,
I am radiant as the sun.
Whosoever understands this, attains liberation.

Translations[edit]

Though a number of commentaries were published on the Taittiriya Upanishad in Sanskrit and Indian languages through the years, including popular ones by Shankara, Sayanana and Ramanuja, the first European translations of the work began to appear in 1805, upto the early 1900s. They began to appear in English, German and French, primarily by Max Muller, Griffith, Muir, and Wilson, all of whom were either western academics based in Europe or in colonial India.^[63] The Taittiriya Upanishad was first translated in Non Indian languages Jacqueline Hirst, in her analysis of Adi Shankara's works, states that Taittiriya Upanishad Bhasya provides one of his key exegesis. Shankara presents Knowledge and Truth as different, non-superimposable but interrelated. Knowledge can be right or wrong, correct or incorrect, a distinction that principles of Truth and Truthfulness help distinguish. Truth cleanses knowledge, helping man understand the nature of empirical truths and hidden truths (invisible laws and principles, spirit/soul/self). Together states Shankara in his Taittiriya Upanishad Bhasya, Knowledge and Truth point to Oneness of all, Brahman as nothing other than Self, Soul in every human being.^[64]

Paul Horsch, in his review of the historical development of Dharma concept and ethics in Indian philosophies, includes Taittiriya Upanishad as among the ancient influential texts.^[65] Kirkwood makes a similar observation.^[66]

Bhatta states that Taittiriya Upanishad is one of earliest expositions of education system in ancient Indian culture.^[67]

Paul Deussen, in his preface to Taittiriya Upanishad's translation, states that Ananda Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad is 'one of the most beautiful evidences of the ancient Indian's deep absorption in the mystery of nature and of the inmost part of the human being'.^[68]

The Taittiriya Upanishad has been translated into a number of Indian languages as well, by a large number of scholars including Dayanand Saraswati, Bhandarkar, and in more recent years, by organisations such as the Chinmayananda mission.^[69]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Angot, Michel. (2007) Taittiriya-Upanisad avec le commentaire de Samkara, p.7. College de France, Paris. ISBN2-86803-074-2
2. ^ ^abcA Weber, History of Indian Literature, p. 87, at Google Books, Trubner & Co, pages 87-91
3. ^ ^abcdPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 217-219
4. ^Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 57-192
5. ^ ^abcdStephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0231144858, Chapter 1
6. ^Patrick Olivelle (1996), The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text & Translation, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195124354, Introduction Chapter
7. ^RD Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy, Chapter 1, pages 13-18
8. ^Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, pages 22-26
9. ^M Winternitz (2010), History of Indian Literature, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120802643
10. ^Patrick Olivelle (1998). The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN978-0-19-512435-4.
11. ^Stephen Phillips (2009). Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Columbia University Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN978-0-231-14485-8.
12. ^ ^abcdefghijMax Muller, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press, Chapter 3: Taittiriya Upanishad, Archived Online
13. ^Original: Taittiriya Upanishad (Sanskrit);
    English Translation: Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 220-246
14. ^zikSA Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne University, Germany
15. ^CP Bhatta (2009), Holistic Personality Development through Education: Ancient Indian Cultural Experiences, Journal of Human Values, vol. 15, no. 1, pages 49-59
16. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 220-231
17. ^Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads with Shankara Bhashya SA Sastri (Translator), pages 56-192
18. ^ ^abAitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads with Shankara Bhashya SA Sastri (Translator), page 62
19. ^ ^abSwami Sharvananda, Taittiriya Upanishad, Ramakrishna Math, Chennai, ISBN81-7823-050-X, page 6-7
20. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 222-223
21. ^ ^abcFlood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 68–70. ISBN1-4051-3251-5.
22. ^Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 65-67
23. ^Max Muller, Taittiriya Upanishad in The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press
24. ^ ^abcPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 223-224
25. ^ ^abTaittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 69-71
26. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 225
27. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 226
28. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 225-226
29. ^Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 76-79
30. ^Sanskrit original: इति प्राचीनयोग्योपास्स्व; Wikisource
31. ^Taittiriya Upanishad - Shiksha Valli, Chapter VI SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, page 77
32. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 227
33. ^Taittiriya Upanishad - Shiksha Valli, Chapter VIII SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 82-84
34. ^pravacana Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne University, Germany
35. ^ ^abTaittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 84-86
36. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 228
37. ^तैत्तिरीयोपनिषद् - शीक्षावल्ली ॥ नवमोऽनुवाकः ॥ (Wikisource)
38. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 228-229
39. ^ ^abMax Muller, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press, Chapter 3: Taittiriya Upanishad, see Siksha Valli - Tenth Anuvaka
40. ^Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 86-89
41. ^ ^abcdeTaittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 89-92
42. ^ ^abcdePaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 229-231
43. ^ ^abTaittiriya Upanishad Thirteen Principle Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pages 281-282
44. ^Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads with Shankara Bhashya SA Sastri (Translator), pages 94-96
45. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 231-232
46. ^
    • Original Sanskrit: Taittiriya Upanishad 2.1.1 Wikisource;
    • Translation 1: Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 104-105
    • Translation 2: Max Muller, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press, Chapter 3: Taittiriya Upanishad, see Ananda Valli Invocation
47. ^ ^abcdefghPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 232-235
48. ^PT Raju, The Concept of the Spiritual in Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 4, No. 3, pages 195-213
49. ^S Mukerjee (2011), Indian Management Philosophy, in The Palgrave Handbook of Spirituality and Business (Editors: Luk Bouckaert and Laszlo Zsolnai), Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN978-0230238312, pages 82-83
50. ^ ^abEliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, pages 56-60
51. ^The Corpus Hermeticum and Hermetic Tradition GRS Mead (Translator); also see The Hymns of Hermes in the same source.
52. ^Taittiriya Upanishad Thirteen Principle Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pages 283-284
53. ^ ^abcdefgPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 234-236
54. ^Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 104-112
55. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 233-237
56. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 237
57. ^ ^abcPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 237-240
58. ^ ^abcdefghPaul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 241-246
59. ^ ^abTaittiriya Upanishad AM Sastri (Translator), GTA Printing Works, Mysore, pages 699-791
60. ^Taittiriya Upanishad SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 170-192
61. ^right, just, natural order, connecting principle
62. ^Swami Gambhirananda, Taittiriya Upanishad, in Eight Upanishads, Vedanta Press, ISBN978-8175050167
63. ^Griffith, Ralph (1 November 1896). The hymns of the Rig Veda (2 ed.). Kotagiri, Nilgiris.
64. ^Jacqueline Suthren Hirst (2004), Images of Śaṃkara: Understanding the Other, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1/3 (Jan., 2004), pages 157-181
65. ^Paul Horsch, From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma, Translated by Jarrod L. Whitaker (2004), Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol. 32, pages 423–448
66. ^William G. Kirkwood (1989), Truthfulness as a standard for speech in ancient India, Southern Communication Journal, Volume 54, Issue 3, pages 213-234
67. ^CP Bhatta (2009), Holistic Personality Development through Education - Ancient Indian Cultural Experiences, Journal of Human Values, January/June 2009, vol. 15, no. 1, pages 49-59
68. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 232
69. ^Sarma, RVSN. 'Purusha Suktam - the vedic hymn'(PDF). Retrieved 18 September 2018.

Further reading[edit]

1. Outlines Of Indian Philosophy by M.Hiriyanna. Motilal Banarasidas Publishers.
2. Kannada Translation of Taittireeya Upanishad by Swami Adidevananda Ramakrishna Mission Publishers.

External links[edit]

Shikshavalli Pdf Sanskrit Sssbpt

• The Taittiriya Upanishad with the commentaries of Śaṅkarāchārya, Sureśvarāchārya and Sāyaṇa (Vidyāraṇya) Translated by AM Sastry (proofread edition with proper unicode diacritics and a glossary); originally scanned at archive.org)
• Taittiriya Upanishad, Translated by Swami Sharvananda with the original text in Devanagari, transliteration of each shloka, and word-for-word English rendering followed by a running translation and notes based on Shankaracharya's commentary. ISBN81-7823-050-X
• Taittiriya Upanishad, Multiple translations (Johnston, Nikhilānanda, Gambhirananda)
• Taittiriya Upanishad, Sanskrit manuscript
• Taittiriya Upanishad, Sanskrit manuscript with Vedic accents
• Taittiriya Upanishad Vision of Advaita Vedanta in Taittiriya Upanishad

The Upanishads (/uːˈpænɪˌʃædz, uːˈpɑːnɪˌʃɑːdz/;^[1]Sanskrit: उपनिषद्Upaniṣad[ʊpɐnɪʂɐd]), a part of the Vedas, are ancient Sanskrit texts that contain some of the central philosophical concepts and ideas of Hinduism, some of which are shared with religious traditions like Buddhism and Jainism.^{[2][3][note 1][note 2]} Among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads played an important role in the development of spiritual ideas in ancient India, marking a transition from Vedic ritualism to new ideas and institutions.^[6] Of all Vedic literature, the Upanishads alone are widely known, and their central ideas are at the spiritual core of Hindus.^[2][7]

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta. Vedanta has been interpreted as the 'last chapters, parts of the Veda' and alternatively as 'object, the highest purpose of the Veda'.^[8] The concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Ātman (soul, self) are central ideas in all of the Upanishads,^[9][10] and 'know that you are the Ātman' is their thematic focus.^[10][11] Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads (known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi)^[12] provide a foundation for the several later schools of Vedanta, among them, two influential monistic schools of Hinduism.^{[note 3][note 4][note 5]}

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.^[15][16] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas^[17] and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down orally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five^{[note 6]} of them in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),^[18] down to the Maurya period.^[19] Of the remainder, 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE.^[20][21] New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era,^[22] though often dealing with subjects that are unconnected to the Vedas.^[23]

With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they also started to attract attention from a western audience. Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it 'the production of the highest human wisdom'.^[24] Modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major western philosophers.^[25][26][27]

• 2Development
• 3Classification
• 5Philosophy
• 6Schools of Vedanta

Etymology[edit]

The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad (from upa 'by' and ni-ṣad 'sit down')^[28] translates to 'sitting down near', referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving spiritual knowledge.^[29] Other dictionary meanings include 'esoteric doctrine' and 'secret doctrine'. Monier-Williams' Sanskrit Dictionary notes – 'According to native authorities, Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit.'^[30]

Adi Shankaracharya explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Ātmavidyā, that is, 'knowledge of the self', or Brahmavidyā 'knowledge of Brahma'. The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. Max Müller as well as Paul Deussen translate the word Upanishad in these verses as 'secret doctrine',^[31][32] Robert Hume translates it as 'mystic meaning',^[33] while Patrick Olivelle translates it as 'hidden connections'.^[34]

Development[edit]

Authorship[edit]

The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown. Radhakrishnan states, 'almost all the early literature of India was anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads'.^[35] The ancient Upanishads are embedded in the Vedas, the oldest of Hinduism's religious scriptures, which some traditionally consider to be apauruṣeya, which means 'not of a man, superhuman'^[36] and 'impersonal, authorless'.^[37][38][39] The Vedic texts assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.^[40]

The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous sages such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada, and Sanatkumara.^[35][41] Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.^[42] There are some exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to sage Shvetashvatara, and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.^[43]

Many scholars believe that early Upanishads were interpolated^[44] and expanded over time. There are differences within manuscripts of the same Upanishad discovered in different parts of South Asia, differences in non-Sanskrit version of the texts that have survived, and differences within each text in terms of meter,^[45] style, grammar and structure.^[46][47] The existing texts are believed to be the work of many authors.^[48].

Chronology[edit]

Scholars are uncertain about when the Upanishads were composed.^[49] The chronology of the early Upanishads is difficult to resolve, states philosopher and Sanskritist Stephen Phillips,^[15] because all opinions rest on scanty evidence and analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, and are driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies. Indologist Patrick Olivelle says that 'in spite of claims made by some, in reality, any dating of these documents [early Upanishads] that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards'.^[18] Some scholars have tried to analyse similarities between Hindu Upanishads and Buddhist literature to establish chronology for the Upanishads.^[19]

Patrick Olivelle gives the following chronology for the early Upanishads, also called the Principal Upanishads:^[49][18]

• The Brhadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the two earliest Upanishads. They are edited texts, some of whose sources are much older than others. The two texts are pre-Buddhist; they may be placed in the 7th to 6th centuries BCE, give or take a century or so.^[50][19]
• The three other early prose Upanisads—Taittiriya, Aitareya, and Kausitaki come next; all are probably pre-Buddhist and can be assigned to the 6th to 5th centuries BCE.^{[citation needed]}
• The Kena is the oldest of the verse Upanisads followed by probably the Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka. All these Upanisads were composed probably in the last few centuries BCE.^[51]
• The two late prose Upanisads, the Prasna and the Mandukya, cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era.^[49][18]

Stephen Phillips places the early Upanishads in the 800 to 300 BCE range. He summarizes the current Indological opinion to be that the Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Isha, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, and Prasna Upanishads are all pre-Buddhist and pre-Jain, while Svetasvatara and Mandukya overlap with the earliest Buddhist and Jain literature.^[15]

The later Upanishads, numbering about 95, also called minor Upanishads, are dated from the late 1st-millennium BCE to mid 2nd-millennium CE.^[20]Gavin Flood dates many of the twenty Yoga Upanishads to be probably from the 100 BCE to 300 CE period.^[21]Patrick Olivelle and other scholars date seven of the twenty Sannyasa Upanishads to likely have been complete sometime between the last centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE to 300 CE.^[20] About half of the Sannyasa Upanishads were likely composed in 14th- to 15th-century CE.^[20]

Geography[edit]

The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads is considered as northern India. The region is bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley, on the east by lower Ganges region, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range.^[18] Scholars are reasonably sure that the early Upanishads were produced at the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism, comprising the regions of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.^[52] This region covers modern Bihar, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, and northern Madhya Pradesh.^[18]

While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad.^[53] The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more western than eastern location in the Indian subcontinent, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country.^[54]

Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.^[55] In the fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad, a location named Kashi (modern Varanasi) is mentioned.^[18]

Classification[edit]

Muktika canon: major and minor Upanishads[edit]

There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktikā Upanishad, predates 1656 CE^[56] and contains a list of 108 canonical Upanishads,^[57] including itself as the last. These are further divided into Upanishads associated with Shaktism (goddess Shakti), Sannyasa (renunciation, monastic life), Shaivism (god Shiva), Vaishnavism (god Vishnu), Yoga, and Sāmānya (general, sometimes referred to as Samanya-Vedanta).^[58][59]

Some of the Upanishads are categorized as 'sectarian' since they present their ideas through a particular god or goddess of a specific Hindu tradition such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, or a combination of these such as the Skanda Upanishad. These traditions sought to link their texts as Vedic, by asserting their texts to be an Upanishad, thereby a Śruti.^[60] Most of these sectarian Upanishads, for example the Rudrahridaya Upanishad and the Mahanarayana Upanishad, assert that all the Hindu gods and goddesses are the same, all an aspect and manifestation of Brahman, the Vedic concept for metaphysical ultimate reality before and after the creation of the Universe.^[61][62]

Mukhya Upanishads[edit]

The Mukhya Upanishads can be grouped into periods. Of the early periods are the Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya, the oldest.^{[63][note 7]}

The Aitareya, Kauṣītaki and Taittirīya Upanishads may date to as early as the mid 1st millennium BCE, while the remnant date from between roughly the 4th to 1st centuries BCE, roughly contemporary with the earliest portions of the Sanskrit epics.One chronology assumes that the Aitareya, Taittiriya, Kausitaki, Mundaka, Prasna, and Katha Upanishads has Buddha's influence, and is consequently placed after the 5th century BCE, while another proposal questions this assumption and dates it independent of Buddha's date of birth. After these Principal Upanishads are typically placed the Kena, Mandukya and Isa Upanishads, but other scholars date these differently.^[19] Not much is known about the authors except for those, like Yajnavalkayva and Uddalaka, mentioned in the texts.^[17] A few women discussants, such as Gargi and Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkayva,^[65] also feature occasionally.

Each of the principal Upanishads can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (shakhas).^[66] Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new Upanishads often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic Upanishads, being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.^[67]

New Upanishads[edit]

There is no fixed list of the Upanishads as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.^[68] In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named Bashkala, Chhagaleya, Arsheya, and Saunaka, by Friedrich Schrader,^[69] who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.^[70] The text of three of them, namely the Chhagaleya, Arsheya, and Saunaka, were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.^[70]

Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.^[71] These 'new Upanishads' number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology^[72] to renunciation^[73] to sectarian theories.^[71] They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).^[71][73] While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,^[20][21] many of these new texts under the title of 'Upanishads' originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,^[71] they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.^[23]

The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidyaupasana. The many extant lists of authentic Shakta Upaniṣads vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their 'location' in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.^[74]

Association with Vedas[edit]

All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda.^[75] During the modern era, the ancient Upanishads that were embedded texts in the Vedas, were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text, compiled into separate texts and these were then gathered into anthologies of Upanishads.^[71] These lists associated each Upanishad with one of the four Vedas, many such lists exist, and these lists are inconsistent across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas. In south India, the collected list based on Muktika Upanishad,^{[note 8]} and published in Telugu language, became the most common by the 19th-century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads.^[71][76] In north India, a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common.^[71]

The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as mukhya,^{[77][note 9]} 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 20 as Sannyāsa,^[81] 14 as Vaishnava, 12 as Shaiva, 8 as Shakta, and 20 as Yoga.^[82] The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.^[75] The mukhya Upanishads are the most important and highlighted.^[79]

Philosophy[edit]

The Upanishadic age was characterized by a pluralism of worldviews. While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.^[89] The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school.^[90] They contain a plurality of ideas.^{[91][note 11]}

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have dominated Indian philosophy, religion and life ever since their appearance.^[92] The Upanishads are respected not because they are considered revealed (Shruti), but because they present spiritual ideas that are inspiring.^[93] The Upanishads are treatises on Brahman-knowledge, that is knowledge of Ultimate Hidden Reality, and their presentation of philosophy presumes, 'it is by a strictly personal effort that one can reach the truth'.^[94] In the Upanishads, states Radhakrishnan, knowledge is a means to freedom, and philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom by a way of life.^[95]

The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been at the foundation of Indian traditions. For example, the Chandogya Upanishad includes one of the earliest known declaration of Ahimsa (non-violence) as an ethical precept.^[96][97] Discussion of other ethical premises such as Damah (temperance, self-restraint), Satya (truthfulness), Dāna (charity), Ārjava (non-hypocrisy), Daya (compassion) and others are found in the oldest Upanishads and many later Upanishads.^[98][99] Similarly, the Karma doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is the oldest Upanishad.^[100]

Development of thought[edit]

While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual.^[101] The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chāndogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting Om! Let's eat. Om! Let's drink.^[101]

The Kaushitaki Upanishad asserts that 'external rituals such as Agnihotram offered in the morning and in the evening, must be replaced with inner Agnihotram, the ritual of introspection', and that 'not rituals, but knowledge should be one's pursuit'.^[102] The Mundaka Upanishad declares how man has been called upon, promised benefits for, scared unto and misled into performing sacrifices, oblations and pious works.^[103] Mundaka thereafter asserts this is foolish and frail, by those who encourage it and those who follow it, because it makes no difference to man's current life and after-life, it is like blind men leading the blind, it is a mark of conceit and vain knowledge, ignorant inertia like that of children, a futile useless practice.^[103][104] The Maitri Upanishad states,^[105]

The performance of all the sacrifices, described in the Maitrayana-Brahmana, is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman, to prepare a man for meditation. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those fires,^[106] meditate on the Self, to become complete and perfect.

The opposition to the ritual is not explicit in the oldest Upanishads. On occasions, the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse-sacrifice or ashvamedha allegorically. It states that the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.^[101]

In similar fashion, Vedic gods such as the Agni, Aditya, Indra, Rudra, Visnu, Brahma, and others become equated in the Upanishads to the supreme, immortal, and incorporeal Brahman-Atman of the Upanishads, god becomes synonymous with self, and is declared to be everywhere, inmost being of each human being and within every living creature.^{[109][110][111]} The one reality or ekam sat of the Vedas becomes the ekam eva advitiyam or 'the one and only and sans a second' in the Upanishads.^[101] Brahman-Atman and self-realization develops, in the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation; freedom in this life or after-life).^{[111][112][113]}

According to Jayatilleke, the thinkers of Upanishadic texts can be grouped into two categories.^[114] One group, which includes early Upanishads along with some middle and late Upanishads, were composed by metaphysicians who used rational arguments and empirical experience to formulate their speculations and philosophical premises. The second group includes many middle and later Upanishads, where their authors professed theories based on yoga and personal experiences.^[114] Yoga philosophy and practice, adds Jayatilleke, is 'not entirely absent in the Early Upanishads'.^[114] The development of thought in these Upanishadic theories contrasted with Buddhism, since the Upanishadic inquiry assumed there is a soul (Atman), while Buddhism assumed there is no soul (Anatta), states Jayatilleke.^[115]

Brahman and Atman[edit]

Two concepts that are of paramount importance in the Upanishads are Brahman and Atman.^[9] The Brahman is the ultimate reality and the Atman is individual self (soul).^[116][117] Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.^{[118][119][120]} It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.^[116][121] Brahman is 'the infinite source, fabric, core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested, the formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown'. Brahman in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the 'creative principle which lies realized in the whole world'.^[122]

The word Atman means the inner self, the soul, the immortal spirit in an individual, and all living beings including animals and trees.^[123][117] Ātman is a central idea in all the Upanishads, and 'Know your Ātman' their thematic focus.^[10] These texts state that the inmost core of every person is not the body, nor the mind, nor the ego, but Atman – 'soul' or 'self'.^[124] Atman is the spiritual essence in all creatures, their real innermost essential being.^[125][126] It is eternal, it is ageless. Atman is that which one is at the deepest level of one's existence.

Atman is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Younger upanishads state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with Atman, while older upanishads state Atman is part of Brahman but not identical.^[127][128] The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~ 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories. According to Nakamura, the Brahman sutras see Atman and Brahman as both different and not-different, a point of view which came to be called bhedabheda in later times.^[129] According to Koller, the Brahman sutras state that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different.^[127] This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism.

Reality and Maya[edit]

Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads, according to Mahadevan. The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical, changing reality is an appearance (Maya).^[130]

The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).^[131] The former manifests itself as Ātman (soul, self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of Atman as 'true knowledge' (Vidya), and the knowledge of Maya as 'not true knowledge' (Avidya, Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).^[132]

Hendrick Vroom explains, 'the term Maya [in the Upanishads] has been translated as 'illusion,' but then it does not concern normal illusion. Here 'illusion' does not mean that the world is not real and simply a figment of the human imagination. Maya means that the world is not as it seems; the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature is concerned.'^[133] According to Wendy Doniger, 'to say that the universe is an illusion (māyā) is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. Māyā not only deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it limits their knowledge.'^[134]

In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.^[135][136]Maya, or 'illusion', is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating self-knowledge, it is Maya which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.^[137][138]

Schools of Vedanta[edit]

The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.^[139] Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads. The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.^[140] The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:^[141]

• According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.^[141]
• According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
• According to Dvaita, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities.

Other schools of Vedanta include Nimbarka's Dvaitadvaita, Vallabha's Suddhadvaita and Chaitanya's Acintya Bhedabheda.^[142] The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads.^[143]

Advaita Vedanta[edit]

Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.^[144] It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.^[144] Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the conflicting statements of the Upanishads.^[145] Gaudapada's Advaita ideas were further developed by Shankara (8th century CE).^[146][147] King states that Gaudapada's main work, Māṇḍukya Kārikā, is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.^[148] King also suggests that there are clear differences between Shankara's writings and the Brahmasutra,^[146][147] and many ideas of Shankara are at odds with those in the Upanishads.^[149] Radhakrishnan, on the other hand, suggests that Shankara's views of Advaita were straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the Brahmasutra,^[150] and many ideas of Shankara derive from the Upanishads.^[151]

Shankara in his discussions of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy referred to the early Upanishads to explain the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts that Atman (soul, self) exists, whereas Buddhism asserts that there is no soul, no self.^{[152][153][154]}

The Upanishads contain four sentences, the Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings), which were used by Shankara to establish the identity of Atman and Brahman as scriptural truth:

• 'Prajñānam brahma' - 'Consciousness is Brahman' (Aitareya Upanishad)^[155]
• 'Aham brahmāsmi' - 'I am Brahman' (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad)^[156]
• 'Tat tvam asi' - 'That Thou art' (Chandogya Upanishad)^[157]
• 'Ayamātmā brahma' - 'This Atman is Brahman' (Mandukya Upanishad)^[158]

Although there are a wide variety of philosophical positions propounded in the Upanishads, commentators since Adi Shankara have usually followed him in seeing idealistmonism as the dominant force.^{[159][note 12]}

Vishishtadvaita[edit]

The second school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Sri Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE). Sri Ramanuja disagreed with Adi Shankara and the Advaita school.^[160] Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.^[161] Sri Ramanuja frequently cited the Upanishads, and stated that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.^[162][163]

Sri Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita interpretation of the Upanishad is a qualified monism.^[164][165] Sri Ramanuja interprets the Upanishadic literature to be teaching a body-soul theory, states Jeaneane Fowler – a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies, where the Brahman is the dweller in all things, yet also distinct and beyond all things, as the soul, the inner controller, the immortal.^[163] The Upanishads, according to the Vishishtadvaita school, teach individual souls to be of the same quality as the Brahman, but quantitatively they are distinct.^{[166][167][168]}

In the Vishishtadvaita school, the Upanishads are interpreted to be teaching an Ishwar (Vishnu), which is the seat of all auspicious qualities, with all of the empirically perceived world as the body of God who dwells in everything.^[163] The school recommends a devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god. This ultimately leads one to the oneness with abstract Brahman.^{[169][170][171]} The Brahman in the Upanishads is a living reality, states Fowler, and 'the Atman of all things and all beings' in Sri Ramanuja's interpretation.^[163]

Dvaita[edit]

The third school of Vedanta called the Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE).^[172] It is regarded as a strongly theistic philosophic exposition of Upanishads.^[161] Madhvacharya, much like Adi Shankara claims for Advaita, and Sri Ramanuja claims for Vishishtadvaita, states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upanishads.^[162]

According to the Dvaita school, states Fowler, the 'Upanishads that speak of the soul as Brahman, speak of resemblance and not identity'.^[173] Madhvacharya interprets the Upanishadic teachings of the self becoming one with Brahman, as 'entering into Brahman', just like a drop enters an ocean. This to the Dvaita school implies duality and dependence, where Brahman and Atman are different realities. Brahman is a separate, independent and supreme reality in the Upanishads, Atman only resembles the Brahman in limited, inferior, dependent manner according to Madhvacharya.^{[173][174][175]}

Sri Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta schools,^[169] both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned.^[176][177]

Similarities with Platonic thought[edit]

Several scholars have recognised parallels between the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato and that of the Upanishads, including their ideas on sources of knowledge, concept of justice and path to salvation, and Plato's allegory of the cave. Platonic psychology with its divisions of reason, spirit and appetite, also bears resemblance to the three gunas in the Indian philosophy of Samkhya.^{[178][179][note 13]}

Various mechanisms for such a transmission of knowledge have been conjectured including Pythagoras traveling as far as India; Indian philosophers visiting Athens and meeting Socrates; Plato encountering the ideas when in exile in Syracuse; or, intermediated through Persia.^[178][181]

However, other scholars, such as Arthur Berriedale Keith, J. Burnet and A. R. Wadia, believe that the two systems developed independently. They note that there is no historical evidence of the philosophers of the two schools meeting, and point out significant differences in the stage of development, orientation and goals of the two philosophical systems. Wadia writes that Plato's metaphysics were rooted in this life and his primary aim was to develop an ideal state.^[179] In contrast, Upanishadic focus was the individual, the self (atman, soul), self-knowledge, and the means of an individual's moksha (freedom, liberation in this life or after-life).^{[182][11][183]}

Translations[edit]

The Upanishads have been translated into various languages including Persian, Italian, Urdu, French, Latin, German, English, Dutch, Polish, Japanese, Spanish and Russian.^[184] The Moghul Emperor Akbar's reign (1556–1586) saw the first translations of the Upanishads into Persian.^[185][186] His great-grandson, Sultan Mohammed Dara Shikoh, produced a collection called Oupanekhat in 1656, wherein 50 Upanishads were translated from Sanskrit into Persian.^[187]

Anquetil Duperron, a French Orientalist received a manuscript of the Oupanekhat and translated the Persian version into French and Latin, publishing the Latin translation in two volumes in 1801–1802 as Oupneck'hat.^[187][185] The French translation was never published.^[188] The Latin version was the initial introduction of Upanishadic thought to Western scholars.^[189] However, according to Deussen, the Persian translators took great liberties in translating the text and at times changed the meaning.^[190]

The first Sanskrit to English translation of the Aitareya Upanishad was made by Colebrooke,^[191] in 1805 and the first English translation of the Kena Upanishad was made by Rammohun Roy in 1816.^[192][193]

The first German translation appeared in 1832 and Roer's English version appeared in 1853. However, Max Mueller's 1879 and 1884 editions were the first systematic English treatment to include the 12 Principal Upanishads.^[184] Other major translations of the Upanishads have been by Robert Ernest Hume (13 Principal Upanishads),^[194]Paul Deussen (60 Upanishads),^[195]Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (18 Upanishads),^[196] and Patrick Olivelle (32 Upanishads in two books).^[197][159] Olivelle's translation won the 1998 A.K. Ramanujan Book Prize for Translation.^[198]

Reception in the West[edit]

The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851).^[199] He found his own philosophy was in accord with the Upanishads, which taught that the individual is a manifestation of the one basis of reality. For Schopenhauer, that fundamentally real underlying unity is what we know in ourselves as 'will'. Schopenhauer used to keep a copy of the Latin Oupnekhet by his side and commented,

It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death.^[200]

Another German philosopher, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, praised the ideas in the Upanishads,^[201] as did others.^[202] In the United States, the group known as the Transcendentalists were influenced by the German idealists. Americans, such as Emerson and Thoreau embraced Schelling's interpretation of Kant's Transcendental idealism, as well as his celebration of the romantic, exotic, mystical aspect of the Upanishads. As a result of the influence of these writers, the Upanishads gained renown in Western countries.^[203]

The poet T. S. Eliot, inspired by his reading of the Upanishads, based the final portion of his famous poem The Waste Land (1922) upon one of its verses.^[204] According to Eknath Easwaran, the Upanishads are snapshots of towering peaks of consciousness.^[205]

Juan Mascaró, a professor at the University of Barcelona and a translator of the Upanishads, states that the Upanishads represents for the Hindu approximately what the New Testament represents for the Christian, and that the message of the Upanishads can be summarized in the words, 'the kingdom of God is within you'.^[206]

Paul Deussen in his review of the Upanishads, states that the texts emphasize Brahman-Atman as something that can be experienced, but not defined.^[207] This view of the soul and self are similar, states Deussen, to those found in the dialogues of Plato and elsewhere. The Upanishads insisted on oneness of soul, excluded all plurality, and therefore, all proximity in space, all succession in time, all interdependence as cause and effect, and all opposition as subject and object.^[207] Max Müller, in his review of the Upanishads, summarizes the lack of systematic philosophy and the central theme in the Upanishads as follows,

There is not what could be called a philosophical system in these Upanishads. They are, in the true sense of the word, guesses at truth, frequently contradicting each other, yet all tending in one direction. The key-note of the old Upanishads is 'know thyself,' but with a much deeper meaning than that of the γνῶθι σεαυτόν of the Delphic Oracle. The 'know thyself' of the Upanishads means, know thy true self, that which underlines thine Ego, and find it and know it in the highest, the eternal Self, the One without a second, which underlies the whole world.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^The shared concepts include rebirth, samsara, karma, meditation, renunciation and moksha.^[4]
2. ^The Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions, which share some common concepts and interests. While Kuru-Panchala, at the central Ganges Plain, formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition, Kosala-Magadha at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other shramanic traditions.^[5]
3. ^Advaita Vedanta, summarized by Shankara (788–820), advances a non-dualistic (a-dvaita) interpretation of the Upanishads.'^[13]
4. ^'These Upanishadic ideas are developed into Advaita monism. Brahman's unity comes to be taken to mean that appearances of individualities.^[14]
5. ^'The doctrine of advaita (non dualism) has its origin in the Upanishads.'
6. ^The pre-Buddhist Upanishads are: Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Kaushitaki, Aitareya, and Taittiriya Upanishads.^[18]
7. ^These are believed to pre-date Gautam Buddha (c. 500 BCE)^[64]
8. ^The Muktika manuscript found in colonial era Calcutta is the usual default, but other recensions exist.
9. ^ ^abSome scholars list ten as principal, while most consider twelve or thirteen as principal mukhya Upanishads.^[78][79][80]
10. ^Parmeshwaranand classifies Maitrayani with Samaveda, most scholars with Krishna Yajurveda^[75][86]
11. ^Oliville: 'In this Introduction I have avoided speaking of 'the philosophy of the upanishads', a common feature of most introductions to their translations. These documents were composed over several centuries and in various regions, and it is futile to try to discover a single doctrine or philosophy in them.'^[91]
12. ^According to Collins, the breakdown of the Vedic cults is more obscured by retrospective ideology than any other period in Indian history. It is commonly assumed that the dominant philosophy now became an idealist monism, the identification of atman (self) and Brahman (Spirit), and that this mysticism was believed to provide a way to transcend rebirths on the wheel of karma. This is far from an accurate picture of what we read in the Upanishads. It has become traditional to view the Upanishads through the lens of Shankara's Advaita interpretation. This imposes the philosophical revolution of about 700 C.E. upon a very different situation 1,000 to 1,500 years earlier. Shankara picked out monist and idealist themes from a much wider philosophical lineup.^[149]
13. ^For instances of Platonic pluralism in the early Upanishads see Randall.^[180]

References[edit]

Krishna Yajurveda Pdf

1. ^'Upanishad'. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
2. ^ ^abWendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: 'The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus.'
3. ^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0791410806, page 39; Quote: 'The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.';
   Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN978-1592578467, pages 208-210
4. ^Olivelle 1998, pp. xx-xxiv.
5. ^Samuel 2010.
6. ^Patrick Olivelle 1998, pp. 3-4.
7. ^Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195352429, page 3; Quote: 'Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism'.
8. ^Max Müller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
9. ^ ^abMahadevan 1956, p. 59.
10. ^ ^abcPT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0887061394, pages 35-36
11. ^ ^abcWD Strappini, The Upanishads, p. 258, at Google Books, The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue 42
12. ^Ranade 1926, p. 205.
13. ^Cornille 1992, p. 12.
14. ^Phillips 1995, p. 10.
15. ^ ^abcStephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0231144858, pages 25-29 and Chapter 1
16. ^E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN978-1586380212, pages 298-299
17. ^ ^abMahadevan 1956, p. 56.
18. ^ ^abcdefghPatrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195124354, pages 12-14
19. ^ ^abcdKing 1995, p. 52.
20. ^ ^abcdeOlivelle 1992, pp. 5, 8–9.
21. ^ ^abcFlood 1996, p. 96.
22. ^Ranade 1926, p. 12.
23. ^ ^abVarghese 2008, p. 101.
24. ^Clarke, John James (1997). Oriental enlightenment. Routledge. p. 68. ISBN978-0-415-13376-0.
25. ^Deussen 2010, p. 42, Quote: 'Here we have to do with the Upanishads, and the world-wide historical significance of these documents cannot, in our judgement, be more clearly indicated than by showing how the deep fundamental conception of Plato and Kant was precisely that which already formed the basis of Upanishad teaching'.
26. ^Lawrence Hatab (1982). R. Baine Harris (ed.). Neoplatonism and Indian Thought. State University of New York Press. pp. 31–38. ISBN978-0-87395-546-1.;
    Paulos Gregorios (2002). Neoplatonism and Indian Philosophy. State University of New York Press. pp. 71–79, 190–192, 210–214. ISBN978-0-7914-5274-5.
27. ^Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. State University of New York Press. pp. 62–74. ISBN978-0-7914-3683-7.
28. ^'Upanishad'. Online Etymology Dictionary.
29. ^Jones, Constance (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 472. ISBN0816073368.
30. ^Monier-Williams, p. 201.
31. ^Max Müller, Chandogya Upanishad 1.13.4, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 22
32. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 85
33. ^Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 1.13.4, Oxford University Press, page 190
34. ^Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195124354, page 185
35. ^ ^abS Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, pages 22, Reprinted as ISBN978-8172231248
36. ^Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, see apauruSeya
37. ^D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, ISBN , pages 196-197
38. ^Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195384963, page 290
39. ^Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, ISBN978-1409466819, page 128
40. ^Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Handbook of Oriental Studies, BRILL Academic, ISBN978-9004125568, pages 13-14
41. ^Mahadevan 1956, pp. 59-60.
42. ^Ellison Findly (1999), Women and the Arahant Issue in Early Pali Literature, Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, Vol. 15, No. 1, pages 57-76
43. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 301-304
44. ^For example, see: Kaushitaki Upanishad Robert Hume (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 306 footnote 2
45. ^Max Müller, The Upanishads, p. PR72, at Google Books, Oxford University Press, page LXXII
46. ^Patrick Olivelle (1998), Unfaithful Transmitters, Journal of Indian Philosophy, April 1998, Volume 26, Issue 2, pages 173-187;
    Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195124354, pages 583-640
47. ^WD Whitney, The Upanishads and Their Latest Translation, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 7, No. 1, pages 1-26;
    F Rusza (2010), The authorlessness of the philosophical sūtras, Acta Orientalia, Volume 63, Number 4, pages 427-442
48. ^Mark Juergensmeyer et al. (2011), Encyclopedia of Global Religion, SAGE Publications, ISBN978-0761927297, page 1122
49. ^ ^abcOlivelle 1998, pp. 12-13.
50. ^Olivelle 1998, p. xxxvi.
51. ^Patrick Olivelle, Upanishads, Encyclopædia Britannica
52. ^Olivelle 1998, p. xxxvii.
53. ^Olivelle 1998, p. xxxviii.
54. ^Olivelle 1998, p. xxxix.
55. ^Deussen 1908, pp. 35–36.
56. ^Tripathy 2010, p. 84.
57. ^Sen 1937, p. 19.
58. ^Ayyangar, T. R. Srinivasa (1941). The Samanya-Vedanta Upanisads. Jain Publishing (Reprint 2007). ISBN978-0895819833. OCLC27193914.
59. ^Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 556-568.
60. ^Holdrege 1995, pp. 426.
61. ^Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes. BRILL Academic. pp. 112–120. ISBN978-9004107588.
62. ^Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2007). pp. 194–196. ISBN978-0895819819.
63. ^M. Fujii, On the formation and transmission of the JUB, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora 2, 1997
64. ^Olivelle 1998, pp. 3–4.
65. ^Ranade 1926, p. 61.
66. ^Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92.
67. ^Heehs 2002, p. 85.
68. ^Rinehart 2004, p. 17.
69. ^Singh 2002, pp. 3–4.
70. ^ ^abSchrader & Adyar Library 1908, p. v.
71. ^ ^abcdefgOlivelle 1998, pp. xxxii-xxxiii.
72. ^Paul Deussen (1966), The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Dover, ISBN978-0486216164, pages 283-296; for an example, see Garbha Upanishad
73. ^ ^abPatrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195070453, pages 1-12, 98-100; for an example, see Bhikshuka Upanishad
74. ^Brooks 1990, pp. 13–14.
75. ^ ^abcdParmeshwaranand 2000, pp. 404–406.
76. ^Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814691, pages 566-568
77. ^ ^abPeter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions, New York University Press, ISBN978-0814736500, pages 60-88
78. ^Robert C Neville (2000), Ultimate Realities, SUNY Press, ISBN978-0791447765, page 319
79. ^ ^abStephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0231144858, pages 28-29
80. ^Olivelle 1998, p. xxiii.
81. ^ ^abPatrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195070453, pages x-xi, 5
82. ^ ^abThe Yoga Upanishads TR Srinivasa Ayyangar (Translator), SS Sastri (Editor), Adyar Library
83. ^AM Sastri, The Śākta Upaniṣads, with the commentary of Śrī Upaniṣad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC7475481
84. ^AM Sastri, The Vaishnava-upanishads: with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-brahma-yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC83901261
85. ^AM Sastri, The Śaiva-Upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC863321204
86. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 217-219
87. ^Prāṇāgnihotra is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814691, page 567
88. ^Atharvasiras is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814691, page 568
89. ^Glucklich 2008, p. 70.
90. ^Fields 2001, p. 26.
91. ^ ^abOlivelle 1998, p. 4.
92. ^S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, pages 17-19, Reprinted as ISBN978-8172231248
93. ^Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, The Principal Upanishads, Indus / Harper Collins India; 5th edition (1994), ISBN978-8172231248
94. ^S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, pages 19-20, Reprinted as ISBN978-8172231248
95. ^S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, page 24, Reprinted as ISBN978-8172231248
96. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 114-115 with preface and footnotes;
    Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 3.17, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 212-213
97. ^Henk Bodewitz (1999), Hindu Ahimsa, in Violence Denied (Editors: Jan E. M. Houben, et al), Brill, ISBN978-9004113442, page 40
98. ^PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5
99. ^Chatterjea, Tara. Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy. Oxford: Lexington Books. p. 148.
100. ^Tull, Herman W. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. P. 28
101. ^ ^abcdMahadevan 1956, p. 57.
102. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 30-42;
103. ^ ^abMax Müller (1962), Manduka Upanishad, in The Upanishads - Part II, Oxford University Press, Reprinted as ISBN978-0486209937, pages 30-33
104. ^Eduard Roer, Mundaka Upanishad^{[permanent dead link]} Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, pages 153-154
105. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 331-333
106. ^'laid those fires' is a phrase in Vedic literature that implies yajna and related ancient religious rituals; see Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation^{[permanent dead link]} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, First Prapathaka
107. ^Max Müller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 287-288
108. ^Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 412–414
109. ^Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 428–429
110. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, pages 350-351
111. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, The Philosophy of Upanishads at Google Books, University of Kiel, T&T Clark, pages 342-355, 396-412
112. ^RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42
113. ^Mark B. Woodhouse (1978), Consciousness and Brahman-Atman, The Monist, Vol. 61, No. 1, Conceptions of the Self: East & West (JANUARY, 1978), pages 109-124
114. ^ ^abcJayatilleke 1963, p. 32.
115. ^Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 36-39.
116. ^ ^abJames Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN978-0823931798, page 122
117. ^ ^ab[a] Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0791425138, page 64, Quote: 'Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (..) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of Atman with Brahman'.
     [b] Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195340136, page 63; Quote: 'Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman ('soul') and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu.'
     [c] David Lorenzen (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN0-415215277, pages 208-209, Quote: 'Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself'.
118. ^PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
119. ^Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, ISBN978-9042015104, pages 43-44
120. ^For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0199738724, pages 51-58, 111-115;
     For monist school of Hinduism, see: B Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18-35
121. ^Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN978-0884899976, pages 43-47
122. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120814684, page 91
123. ^[a]Atman, Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), Quote: '1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul';
     [b] John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0192800947, See entry for Atman;
     [c] WJ Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0198610250, See entry for Atman (self).
124. ^Soul is synonymous with self in translations of ancient texts of Hindu philosophy
125. ^Alice Bailey (1973), The Soul and Its Mechanism, ISBN978-0853301158, pages 82-83
126. ^Eknath Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, Nilgiri Press, ISBN978-1586380212, pages 38-39, 318-320
127. ^ ^abJohn Koller (2012), Shankara, in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN978-0415782944, pages 99-102
128. ^Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads at Google Books, Dover Publications, pages 86-111, 182-212
129. ^Nakamura (1990), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy', p.500. Motilall Banarsidas
130. ^Mahadevan 1956, pp. 62-63.
131. ^Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 161, at Google Books, pages 161, 240-254
132. ^Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0791436844, page 376
133. ^H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN978-0802840974, page 57
134. ^Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, ISBN978-0226618555, page 119
135. ^Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN978-0415245227, pages 47-48
136. ^Teun Goudriaan (2008), Maya: Divine And Human, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120823891, pages 1-17
137. ^KN Aiyar (Translator, 1914), Sarvasara Upanishad, in Thirty Minor Upanishads, page 17, OCLC6347863
138. ^Adi Shankara, Commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad at Google Books, SS Sastri (Translator), Harvard University Archives, pages 191-198
139. ^Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 272.
140. ^Raju 1992, p. 176-177.
141. ^ ^abRaju 1992, p. 177.
142. ^Ranade 1926, pp. 179–182.
143. ^Mahadevan 1956, p. 63.
144. ^ ^abEncyclopædia Britannica.
145. ^Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 273.
146. ^ ^abKing 1999, p. 221.
147. ^ ^abNakamura 2004, p. 31.
148. ^King 1999, p. 219.
149. ^ ^abCollins 2000, p. 195.
150. ^Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 284.
151. ^John Koller (2012), Shankara in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN978-0415782944, pages 99-108
152. ^Edward Roer (translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 3-4; Quote - '(..) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect.'
153. ^Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at page 3, OCLC19373677
154. ^KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;
     Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: 'Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.';
     Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 2, at Google Books, pages 2-4
     Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
     John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: 'The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism'.
155. ^Panikkar 2001, p. 669.
156. ^Panikkar 2001, pp. 725–727.
157. ^Panikkar 2001, pp. 747–750.
158. ^Panikkar 2001, pp. 697–701.
159. ^ ^abOlivelle 1998.
160. ^Klostermaier 2007, pp. 361–363.
161. ^ ^abChari 1956, p. 305.
162. ^ ^abStafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 20, No. 2, pages 215-224, doi:10.1080/09552367.2010.484955
163. ^ ^abcdJeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 298–299, 320–321, 331 with notes. ISBN978-1-898723-93-6.
164. ^William M. Indich (1995). Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–2, 97–102. ISBN978-81-208-1251-2.
165. ^Bruce M. Sullivan (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 239. ISBN978-0-8108-4070-6.
166. ^Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pages 215-224
167. ^Edward Craig (2000), Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN978-0415223645, pages 517-518
168. ^Sharma, Chandradhar (1994). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 373–374. ISBN81-208-0365-5.
169. ^ ^abJ.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), Ramanuja - Hindu theologian and Philosopher, Encyclopædia Britannica
170. ^Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 20–22 with footnote 32. ISBN978-0227680247.
171. ^Joseph P. Schultz (1981). Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 81–84. ISBN978-0-8386-1707-6.
172. ^Raghavendrachar 1956, p. 322.
173. ^ ^abJeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 356–357. ISBN978-1-898723-93-6.
174. ^Stoker, Valerie (2011). 'Madhva (1238-1317)'. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
175. ^Bryant, Edwin (2007). Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma). Oxford University Press. pp. 358–359. ISBN978-0195148923.
176. ^Sharma, Chandradhar (1994). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 374–375. ISBN81-208-0365-5.
177. ^Bryant, Edwin (2007). Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma). Oxford University Press. pp. 361–362. ISBN978-0195148923.
178. ^ ^abChousalkar 1986, pp. 130-134.
179. ^ ^abWadia 1956, p. 64-65.
180. ^Collins 2000, pp. 197–198.
181. ^Urwick 1920.
182. ^Keith 2007, pp. 602-603.
183. ^RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42; Chousalkar, Ashok (1986), Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, pages 130-134
184. ^ ^abSharma 1985, p. 20.
185. ^ ^abMüller 1900, p. lvii.
186. ^Müller 1899, p. 204.
187. ^ ^abDeussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 558-59.
188. ^Müller 1900, p. lviii.
189. ^Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 558-559.
190. ^Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 915-916.
191. ^See Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1858), Essays on the religion and philosophy of the Hindus. London: Williams and Norgate. In this volume, see chapter 1 (pp. 1–69), On the Vedas, or Sacred Writings of the Hindus, reprinted from Colebrooke's Asiatic Researches, Calcutta: 1805, Vol 8, pp. 369–476. A translation of the Aitareya Upanishad appears in pages 26–30 of this chapter.
192. ^Zastoupil, L (2010). Rammohun Roy and the Making of Victorian Britain, By Lynn Zastoupil. ISBN9780230111493. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
193. ^'The Upanishads, Part 1, by Max Müller'.
194. ^Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press
195. ^Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997.
196. ^Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953), The Principal Upanishads, New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers (1994 Reprint), ISBN81-7223-124-5
197. ^Olivelle 1992.
198. ^'AAS SAC A.K. Ramanujan Book Prize for Translation'. Association of Asian Studies. 25 June 2002. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
199. ^Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 395.
200. ^Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 397.
201. ^Herman Wayne Tull (1989). The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. State University of New York Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN978-0-7914-0094-4.
202. ^Klaus G. Witz (1998). The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 35–44. ISBN978-81-208-1573-5.
203. ^Versluis 1993, pp. 69, 76, 95. 106–110.
204. ^Eliot 1963.
205. ^Easwaran 2007, p. 9.
206. ^Juan Mascaró, The Upanishads, Penguin Classics, ISBN978-0140441635, page 7, 146, cover
207. ^ ^abPaul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads University of Kiel, T&T Clark, pages 150-179

Sources[edit]

Taittiriya Upanishad Chanting Pdf

• Brooks, Douglas Renfrew (1990), The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Shakta Tantrism, The University of Chicago Press
• Brown, Rev. George William (1922), Missionary review of the world, Volume 45, Funk & Wagnalls
• Deussen, Paul; Bedekar, V.M. (tr.); Palsule (tr.), G.B. (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN978-81-208-1467-7.
• Deussen, P. (2010), The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Cosimo, ISBN978-1-61640-239-6
• Chari, P. N. Srinivasa (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.), History of Philosophy Eastern and Western
• Chousalkar, Ashok (1986), Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, Mittal Publications
• Collins, Randall (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change, Harvard University Press, ISBN0-674-00187-7
• Cornille, Catherine (1992), The Guru in Indian Catholicism: Ambiguity Or Opportunity of Inculturation, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN978-0-8028-0566-9
• Deussen, Paul (1908), The philosophy of the Upanishads, Alfred Shenington Geden, T. & T. Clark, ISBN0-7661-5470-X
• Easwaran, Eknath (2007), The Upanishads, Nilgiri Press, ISBN978-1-58638-021-2
• Eliot, T. S. (1963), Collected Poems, 1909-1962, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, ISBN0-15-118978-1
• Encyclopædia Britannica, Advaita, retrieved 10 August 2010
• Farquhar, John Nicol (1920). An outline of the religious literature of India. H. Milford, Oxford university press. ISBN81-208-2086-X.
• Fields, Gregory P (2001), Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Āyurveda, and Tantra, SUNY Press, ISBN0-7914-4916-5
• Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0521438780
• Glucklich, Ariel (2008), The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective, Oxford University Press, ISBN0-19-531405-0
• Heehs, Peter (2002), Indian religions: a historical reader of spiritual expression and experience, NYU Press, ISBN978-0-8147-3650-0
• Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, Albany: SUNY Press, ISBN0-7914-1639-9
• Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge(PDF) (1st ed.), London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
• Joshi, Kireet (1994), The Veda and Indian culture: an introductory essay, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-81-208-0889-8
• Keith, Arthur Berriedale (2007). The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN978-81-208-0644-3.
• King, Richard (1999), Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN0-87840-756-1
• King, Richard (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, Gauḍapāda, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-2513-8
• Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007), A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, ISBN0-585-04507-0
• Lanman, Charles R (1897), The Outlook, Volume 56, Outlook Co.
• Lal, Mohan (1992), Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: sasay to zorgot, Sahitya Akademi, ISBN978-81-260-1221-3
• Müller, Friedrich Max (1900), The Upanishads Sacred books of the East The Upanishads, Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford University Press
• Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.), History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd
• Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, ISBN0-8426-0286-0, retrieved 10 August 2010
• Müller, F. Max (1899), The science of language founded on lectures delivered at the royal institution in 1861 AND 1863, ISBN0-404-11441-5
• Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A history of early Vedānta philosophy, Volume 2, Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass
• Patrick Olivelle (1998). The Early Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195124354.
• Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195070453.
• Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upaniṣads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0192835765
• Panikkar, Raimundo (2001), The Vedic experience: Mantramañjarī : an anthology of the Vedas for modern man and contemporary celebration, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-81-208-1280-2
• Parmeshwaranand, Swami (2000), Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upanisads, Sarup & Sons, ISBN978-81-7625-148-8
• Phillips, Stephen H. (1995), Classical Indian metaphysics: refutations of realism and the emergence of 'new logic', Open Court Publishing, ISBN978-81-208-1489-9, retrieved 24 October 2010
• Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press
• Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.), History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd
• Raghavendrachar, Vidvan H. N (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.), History of Philosophy Eastern and Western
• Ranade, R. D. (1926), A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
• Rinehart, Robin (2004), Robin Rinehart (ed.), Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice, ABC-CLIO, ISBN978-1-57607-905-8
• Schopenhauer, Arthur; Payne, E. F.J (2000), E. F. J. Payne (ed.), Parerga and paralipomena: short philosophical essays, Volume 2 of Parerga and Paralipomena, E. F. J. Payne, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-924221-4
• Schrödinger, Erwin (1992). What is life?. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-42708-1.
• Schrader, Friedrich Otto; Adyar Library (1908), A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the Adyar Library, Oriental Pub. Co
• Sen, Sris Chandra (1937), 'Vedic literature and Upanishads', The Mystic Philosophy of the Upanishads, General Printers & Publishers
• Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN978-81-208-1575-9.
• Sharma, Shubhra (1985), Life in the Upanishads, Abhinav Publications, ISBN978-81-7017-202-4
• Singh, N.K (2002), Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, ISBN978-81-7488-168-7
• Slater, Thomas Ebenezer (1897), Studies in the Upanishads ATLA monograph preservation program, Christian Literature Society for India
• Smith, Huston (1995). The Illustrated World's Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions. New York: Labyrinth Publishing. ISBN0-06-067453-9.
• Tripathy, Preeti (2010), Indian religions: tradition, history and culture, Axis Publications, ISBN978-93-80376-17-2
• Urwick, Edward Johns (1920), The message of Plato: a re-interpretation of the 'Republic', Methuen & co. ltd, ISBN9781136231162
• Varghese, Alexander P (2008), India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World, Volume 1, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, ISBN978-81-269-0903-2
• Versluis, Arthur (1993), American transcendentalism and Asian religions, Oxford University Press US, ISBN978-0-19-507658-5
• Wadia, A.R. (1956), 'Socrates, Plato and Aristotle', in Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (ed.), History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, vol. II, George Allen & Unwin Ltd
• Raju, P. T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited

Further reading[edit]

• Edgerton, Franklin (1965). The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Embree, Ainslie T. (1966). The Hindu Tradition. New York: Random House. ISBN0-394-71702-3.
• Hume, Robert Ernest. The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Oxford University Press.
• Johnston, Charles (1898). From the Upanishads. Kshetra Books (Reprinted in 2014). ISBN9781495946530.
• Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part I, New York: Dover Publications (Reprinted in 1962), ISBN0-486-20992-X
• Müller, Max, translator, The Upaniṣads, Part II, New York: Dover Publications (Reprinted in 1962), ISBN0-486-20993-8
• Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953). The Principal Upanishads. New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers India (Reprinted in 1994). ISBN81-7223-124-5.

External links[edit]

• Complete set of 108 Upanishads, Manuscripts with the commentary of Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library
• Upanishads, Sanskrit documents in various formats
• The Upaniṣads article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Theory of 'Soul' in the Upanishads, T. W. Rhys Davids (1899)
• Spinozistic Substance and Upanishadic Self: A Comparative Study, M. S. Modak (1931)
• W. B. Yeats and the Upanishads, A. Davenport (1952)
• The Concept of Self in the Upanishads: An Alternative Interpretation, D. C. Mathur (1972)

Taittiriya Upanishad Shikshavalli Pdf